Dec 21 2023

TL;DR:

I think that a focus on memory safe languages (MSLs) versus non memory-safe languages is a bit of a red herring. The actual distinction is slightly bigger than that: languages which have defined behavior by default, with a superset where undefined behavior is possible, vs languages which allow for undefined behavior anywhere in your program. Memory safety is an important aspect of this, but it is necessary, not sufficient. Rust’s marketing has historically focused on memory safety, and I don’t think that was a bad choice, but I do wonder sometimes. Finally, I wonder about the future of the C++ successor languages in the face of coming legislation around MSLs for government procurement.

Additionally, I would like to thank ixi for discussing some of this stuff with me. I do not claim that they agree with me, these opinions are solely my own! But talking about it helped me form those opinions.

ThreadId(1)

Today I have been programming in Rust for 11 years. I usually write some sort of blog post reflecting on the year. This year, I am reflecting on some old questions:

But before we get there, we have to talk about some other things.

ThreadId(2)

The other day, someone asked an interesting question on Hacker News:

Can someone with a security background enlighten me, on why Python is on the list of “memory safe” languages? Most of the python code I have worked with is a thin wrapper on C. Wouldnt that make python vulnerable as well?

This is a very reasonable question! If you click the link, you’d see my answer:

You are correct that if you call C from Python, you can run into problems. But the fault there lies with the C, not the Python. Pure Python itself is memory safe.

Because memory safety is built on top of memory unsafety, it is generally understood that when discussing things at this sort of level, that we are speaking about the Python-only subset. (Same as any other memory safe language.)

But this has been gnawing at me for a while. Like it’s one of those things that “everybody knows what I mean.” But isn’t that kind of… bullshit? Like something is wrong with your definitions. But on the other hand, if we accept FFI as being not safe, and that since you can FFI from anywhere, that means it’s also unsafe, then every single program is unsafe. Your operating system does not offer memory-safe APIs. To do anything useful, you must call into the operating system. This means every program would be infected via this conception of safety, and therefore, as a definition, it would be useless.

If we instead make an exception for a language’s runtime, which is allowed to make unsafe calls, but users’ code is not, that would draw an appropriate boundary: only write code in the guest language, and you don’t have to worry about safety anymore. And I think that this sort of definition has been the default for many years. You have “managed” languages which are safe, and you have “unmanaged” languages which are unsafe. Unmanaged languages are used to implement managed languages. What’s that? A Java runtime written in Java? A Ruby runtime written in Ruby? Yeah those are weird exceptions. Ignore those. And those “native extensions” that segfault? Well they aren’t written in the host language, so of course that will happen, and yeah it’s kinda annoying when it happens, but it’s fine. Sometimes you have to risk it for performance.

I just don’t find this satisfying. It’s too vague. You just kinda know it when you see it. Ignore FFI, and we’re good. And sometimes, you just can’t have safety. What if you want to write a runtime? You’re gonna need to call into the system directly, and now we’re back to unsafe, so just use an unsafe language. It is what it is.

ThreadId(3)

That comment is on an article titled The Case for Memory Safe Roadmaps: Why Both C-Suite Executives and Technical Experts Need to Take Memory Safe Coding Seriously . This document, published by the Five Eyes, suggests… that executives and technical experts need to take memory safety seriously. Call it boring if you want, but it is what it says on the tin.

More specifically, it says:

Memory safe programming languages (MSLs) can eliminate memory safety vulnerabilities.

As well as an appendix, “Memory Safe Languages,” which describes C#, Go, Java, Python, Rust, and Swift as memory safe languages.

Finally, it says:

Programming languages such as C and C++ are examples of memory unsafe programming languages that can lead to memory unsafe code and are still among the most widely used languages today.

But it also acknowledges the reality that sometimes you can get around memory safety:

MSLs, whether they use a garbage collection model or not, will almost certainly need to rely on libraries written in languages such as C and C++. Although there are efforts to re-write widely used libraries in MSLs, no such effort will be able to re-write them all anytime soon.

For the foreseeable future, most developers will need to work in a hybrid model of safe and unsafe programming languages. Developers who start writing in an MSL will need to call C and C++ libraries that are not memory safe. Likewise, there are going to be situations where a memory unsafe application needs to call into a memory safe library. When calling a memory unsafe component or application, the calling application needs to be explicitly aware of—and limit any input passed to—the defined memory bounds.

The memory safety guarantees offered by MSLs are going to be qualified when data flows across these boundaries. Other potential challenges include differences in data marshalling, error handling, concurrency, debugging, and versioning.

Okay, that’s enough quoting from the report. And I swear I’m not about to say nice things about it because I am cited as #42, though to be honest it’s real fucking weird that searching “klabnik” on a page on defense.gov returns 1/1. But I think this is an excellent formulation of the critical distinction between the languages on one side of the line versus the other, though they make the same conceptual mistake that I believe Rust may have: it’s not just about memory unsafety. “safety” itself is basically the idea that most of the time, you’re in a universe where everything is peachy keen, and occasionally, you’ll need to reach across that line into the scary other place, but you gotta do what you gotta do. But there is a line there. But that line is more abstract than just memory safety.

ThreadId(4)

Rust often describes itself as “data race free.” But what the heck is a data race anyway? Here’s John Regehr:

A data race happens when there are two memory accesses in a program where both:

  • target the same location
  • are performed concurrently by two threads
  • are not reads
  • are not synchronization operations

There are other definitions but this one is fine; it’s from Sebastian Burckhardt at Microsoft Research.

Oh. Well, I guess “Here’s Sebastian Burckhardt:” instead.

Point is, data races are undefined behavior in Rust, and they’re also undefined behavior in C++. When looking for a succinct citation for that fact, I came across this 2006 post by Hans Boehm. Its first line:

Our proposed C++ memory model gives completely undefined semantics to programs with data races.

I believe this was the model that was accepted, so that’s the best citation you’re gonna get from me. Okay, as soon as I read that I said “come on Steve, that’s stupid, make sure it’s not just trivial to actually find in the standard” and lo and behold n4849 says:

The execution of a program contains a data race if it contains two potentially concurrent conflicting actions, at least one of which is not atomic, and neither happens before the other, except for the special case for signal handlers described below. Any such data race results in undefined behavior.

Okay, the real citation was easier. The article by Bohm is still fascinating.

But data races aren’t undefined behavior in every programming language. For example, let’s consider both Java and Go. Now I hate that I even have to preemptively say this, but I am not saying Java and Go are bad. I think these are good decisions for both of the two languages. And I think their decisions here are very informative. Language wars are stupid. Stop it.

Java was the first time I remember hearing, “yeah you can have data races but like, it’s fine” about. I kinda lodged that fact in the back of my brain, and didn’t think about it much. But lately, I was wondering. So I went and read the Java specification, and more specifically, Chapter 17. It contains this text:

The semantics of operations other than inter-thread actions, such as reads of array lengths (§10.7), executions of checked casts (§5.5, §15.16), and invocations of virtual methods (§15.12), are not directly affected by data races.

Therefore, a data race cannot cause incorrect behavior such as returning the wrong length for an array.

This is morally equivalent to “not undefined behavior” even though the specification doesn’t define “undefined behavior” in the way that the C, C++, and Rust specifications do. Notably, the specification also defines “data race” in a slightly different way:

When a program contains two conflicting accesses (§17.4.1) that are not ordered by a happens-before relationship, it is said to contain a data race.

Not just any ordering or synchronization primitive, a happens-before relation specifically. Fun! We have three technically-slightly different but basically morally equivalent ways of defining a data race. Let’s do a fourth. Go also allows data races. Sort of. From the Go memory model:

A data race is defined as a write to a memory location happening concurrently with another read or write to that same location, unless all the accesses involved are atomic data accesses as provided by the sync/atomic package.

Given that Rust provides atomic ordering operations in a submodule of its standard library, Rust and Go agree here, though Go’s more specific about naming it.

But they also have this to say:

While programmers should write Go programs without data races, there are limitations to what a Go implementation can do in response to a data race. An implementation may always react to a data race by reporting the race and terminating the program. Otherwise, each read of a single-word-sized or sub-word-sized memory location must observe a value actually written to that location (perhaps by a concurrent executing goroutine) and not yet overwritten.

So it’s not right, but it’s also not exactly UB. It goes on:

These implementation constraints make Go more like Java or JavaScript, in that most races have a limited number of outcomes, and less like C and C++, where the meaning of any program with a race is entirely undefined, and the compiler may do anything at all. Go’s approach aims to make errant programs more reliable and easier to debug, while still insisting that races are errors and that tools can diagnose and report them.

While a Go program may exhibit what a Rust or C++ program would consider undefined behavior, and it does also consider it an error, the consequences are very different. You don’t get time travel. You get 998 instead of 1,000.

(After publication, Edoardo Spadolini reached out to me and we had a productive conversation about the above paragraph: while my overall point here is still valid, there are slightly more serious consequences to UB in a Go program than slightly incorrect sums. For example, torn writes to a slice can lead to serious consequences, and there are other ways to write code that exploits UB to be actively malicious, such as a function with the signature func Cast[T any](addr uintptr) *T that works. However, it’s also worth mentioning that Go ships with a race detector, available by simply passing -race. For some interesting usage of this at scale, check out this post by Uber. At the end of the day, this is still very different than the “your whole program is invalid” style of issues you can end up with in C or C++, I am slightly underselling the danger above.)

Go also provides an unsafe package:

The built-in package unsafe, known to the compiler and accessible through the import path “unsafe”, provides facilities for low-level programming including operations that violate the type system. A package using unsafe must be vetted manually for type safety and may not be portable.

Oh yeah, I forgot, Java also has sun.misc.unsafe, essentially the same thing. They have actually wanted to remove it for a long time, and some progress has been made, but it’s not quite gone yet. The Unsafe Class: Unsafe at Any Speed is a good explanation of the topic.

ThreadId(5)

One weird thing about suggesting that the borrow checker is only about memory safety, and that memory safety means the absence of data races, is that memory safety is more than just the absence of data races. Consider a problem that requires no threads to become an issue: iterator invalidation. And different languages have different answers to this issue:

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
numbers.each do |number|
  p number
  numbers.shift(1)
end
p numbers

prints

1
3
[3, 4]

But you don’t get full-blown time-travel undefined behavior. Sort of like this code in Rust:

fn main() {
    let i = i32::MAX + 1;
    println!("{i}");
}

Okay in this case because it’s all at compile time Rust can detect it:

error: this arithmetic operation will overflow
 --> src/main.rs:2:13
  |
2 |     let i = i32::MAX + 1;
  |             ^^^^^^^^^^^^ attempt to compute `i32::MAX + 1_i32`, which would overflow
  |
  = note: `#[deny(arithmetic_overflow)]` on by default

But in the general case, you won’t get a compile error. You may get a panic, you may get -2147483648. It’s weird. But it’s not full-blown time-travel undefined behavior.

Anyway, back to iterator invalidation:

This is neat! This is cool! This is good! And it’s pretty unique to Rust.

It is nice when our programs do what we expect, instead of what we don’t expect. It is even nicer when, if our programs don’t do what we expect, we have some sort of waypost, some sort of sign where the problem might be. What “nice” means may be a bit different in different languages, but the boundary is the important part: we’re gonna have to potentially violate the rules somewhere, so at least give us some help when that inevitably goes wrong. Over here, logic bugs may happen, some weird behavior may result, but over there? There be dragons. Nobody can save you out there. Tread carefully.

ThreadId(6)

If we think about all of these designs, they all are very similar conceptually: safe code is the default, but you can call into some sort of unsafe facility. And everyone is very clear on the relationship between the two: while the unsafe facility exists to be used, it must uphold the rules that the safe world relies on. And that means that safety and unsafety have a super/sub-set relationship. In the core is unsafety. But at some point, we draw a line, and on top of that line, safety exists.

In Rust, we often talk about how unsafe is great, because it clearly draws a line around code with which serious bugs may happen. More specifically, while most people describe it as “where memory safety can originate from” or similar, it’s actually slightly broader than that: it’s where undefined behavior can originate from.

The nomicon:

Rust code is incorrect if it exhibits any of the behaviors in the following list. This includes code within unsafe blocks and unsafe functions. unsafe only means that avoiding undefined behavior is on the programmer; it does not change anything about the fact that Rust programs must never cause undefined behavior.

It is the programmer’s responsibility when writing unsafe code to ensure that any safe code interacting with the unsafe code cannot trigger these behaviors. unsafe code that satisfies this property for any safe client is called sound; if unsafe code can be misused by safe code to exhibit undefined behavior, it is unsound.

This is not a new insight, but basically, unsafe is like FFI in a managed language. It’s not something you do often. But it is something you sometimes have to do. And when you do, you can at least contain the danger: the problem has to lie somewhere behind that veil. You have clear points to begin your search into where the issues lie, should the abyss claim another soul.

In some ways I’m also repeating another older slogan Rust had: “memory safety without garbage collection.” But it’s more like “no UB and no garbage collection.” Gosh, why didn’t we put that on the website? Practically rolls right off the tongue. What makes Rust appealing, and I think especially to the “non-systems” crowd, is that it shares a property of many managed languages, that of “no undefined behavior by default,” with a property of many systems languages, that of “no runtime, as little overhead as possible.” And sure, there’s an escape hatch, but it’s rarely used, and clearly separates the two worlds. This is a fundamentally different way of viewing the world than “unsafe by default.”

Another way in which there’s an interesting split here in language design is between the scripting languages like Ruby, Python, and JavaScript, and languages like Rust, Go, and Java, is that the boundary in the former is purely FFI, while in the latter, there are also unsafe faculties in the host language itself, as well as with FFI. In all three cases, they’re behind either a specific package or unsafe {}, but they give you some interesting tools that don’t require you to use another language to use. I think this is an under-appreciated part of the overall design space.

threads.into_iter().for_each(|t| t.join().unwrap());

So: did Rust focus too much on memory safety? And what should newer languages do in this area?

Well, I think that in some sense, the answer is obviously “no, Rust did not focus too much on memory safety.” Rust has been wildly successful, reaching heights that I only could dream about eleven years ago. Yes, usually I have tried to be fairly tempered when talking about Rust’s successes, and some folks still try to claim Rust is still super niche. But when I think about the ways that Rust touched even this blog post, it’s staggering: I wrote this post in VS: Code, which uses Rust, on Windows, which has Rust in the kernel. I published it to GitHub, which uses Rust for code search. I previewed it in Chrome, which uses some Rust today and may start having more tomorrow. It’s hosted on Vercel, which uses Rust in projects like turbopack, though maybe not in the critical path for this post. When you read it, the bytes probably passed through CloudFlare, which uses a ton of Rust, and maybe you’re reading this in Firefox, which is about 12% Rust. And maybe you’re on Asahi Linux, where the GPU drivers are written in Rust. Rust has Made It, and is here to stay. And the marketing we used got us here. So in some sense, it would be silly to declare said messaging a failure.

However, I also wonder what else could have been. Could Rust have grown faster with a different message? Maybe. That said, what would that message be? “Undefined behavior is scary?” I’m not sure that’s as compelling, even if I think it’s actually a bigger deal. While memory unsafety is only part of undefined behavior, it is the part that is easy to understand: pointers are the bane of every C newbie. It has consequences that are easy to understand: security vulnerabilities are bad. Has Rust really conflated “memory safety” and “safety” that much? I don’t actually think so. People still talk about SQL injection, about Remote Code Execution, about Cross Site Scripting. People don’t really believe that just because it’s written in Rust, bugs are impossible. Sure you can find a few comments on the internet as such, but the big organizations that are using Rust for meaningful work do not take this position. Given Amdahl’s Law, if 70% of security vulnerabilities are related to memory safety, focusing so strongly on it makes sense, as fixing that will give you a much larger impact than other things.

So what should new languages do here? Well, pretty much the only language that is gaining developer mindshare that’s new and is memory unsafe by default is Zig. I think Andrew is very sharp, and a tremendous engineer. I am very interested to see how things shake out there. But as a language, it does not appeal to me personally, because I think we’ve sort of moved past “unsafe by default.” That being said, it’s also not that Zig is exactly like other languages in this space either: if we are willing to go beyond “memory unsafe vs memory safe at compile time” as a strict binary, and instead look at “memory unsafe at compile time” itself, we see a pretty big gradient. Zig is doing a bunch of things to mitigate issues where possible. Maybe “safe enough” truly is safe enough. Time will tell. But beyond that, you also don’t have to go full Rust in the design space. Rust wants to be a language that you can (and at Oxide, we do) use at the lowest levels of the system. But also memory safe. And extremely fast. These constraints mean that Rust takes on a lot of complexity in the type system, where languages that are willing to relax these things wouldn’t have to. Here are three languages that I think are sort of “post-Rust” in a sense, that are learning from Rust but putting their own twist on things:

I think there are some other languages that are forming the next big cohort of programming languages, and they’re interesting too, but these three I think have the most explicit connection to Rust in the design and goals of the language itself. Shout out to Nu, Inko, Gleam, Roc, Oil Shell, Unison, and others. Lots of cool stuff going on.

int atexit(void (*func)(void))

There is one way in which the question “is the focus on memory unsafety misguided?” is much more serious than battles in the comment sections of various fora: the government.

We talked about this earlier, but various government organizations have been slowly putting out recommendations that organizations should be moving towards MSLs. And the first reactions to these were always “well they’re not laws so they don’t have teeth” as well as “laws are inevitably coming.” To be honest, I have mostly been in the former camp, and viewed the later as fearmongering. Sure, maybe someday, but like, dipping your toes in does not mean that you’re about to cannonball moments later.

But then I got this interesting reply from David Tolnay on Hacker News. In it, he refers me to ADSP: The Podcast, and more specifically, Episode 160: Rust & Safety at Adobe with Sean Parent. In it, Sean makes reference to two pieces of legislation, one in the US and one in the EU. Now, I am not a politican, and these bills are huge, so I wasn’t able to figure out how these bills do this specifically, but to quote Sean:

The one in the U.S. that’s pending basically says that the Department of Defense is going to within 270 days of the bill passing (and it’s a funding bill which means it will probably pass late this year - early next year) that the Department of Defense will establish guidelines around safety and security including memory safety for software products purchased by Department of Defense. The E.U. has a similar wording in a bill that’s slowly winding its way through their channels. I don’t have insight into when that will pass. The U.S. one will almost certainly pass here within a month or two.

This sounds much more realistic, of course. Now, this does not mean that C++ is outlawed or something silly like that, but it does mean that using Rust could become a more serious competitive advantage when it comes to selling to government: if you don’t need an exception for your product, that’s an advantage over a product which does.

This all also may go the way of another anecdote Sean talks about in the past: when a similar bill tried to mandate POSIX compliance. What I’m saying is, go listen to the podcast. And while this still isn’t something as wild as “not using MSLs is illegal,” it is really shocking to me how quickly things seem to be moving in that vague direction, though of course it will never actually arrive there. There seems to be at least some sort of thinking that’s not immediately lauged out of the room that memory unsafety could be a consumer safety issue in a similar sense that other unsafe materials are a consumer safety issue. Is that right? I’m not sure, but it seems to be where the conversation is heading.

So where does that leave existing widely used memory-unsafe languages? Well, the C++ community has… had a wide variety of discussions on this topic. I should also say I mean “community” at large, and the committee feels like it has a big divide as well. Now I should re-iterate that while I pay attention to the C++ standardization process, I am very much an outsider: I have never attended a meeting, I have no direct involvement in these things, I just read a lot. And while historically most of the community wrote Rust off as a novelty, I think that at this point, those with their head in the sand about Rust’s usage are mostly a fringe minority. But the big question that remains is, what to do?

Two approaches have appeared:

What is interesting to me about these approaches is that they are both good, for different reasons. The former is a sort of harm reduction approach: don’t let the perfect be the enemy of the good. What can we do today to improve the lives of a ton of people? But if you want to move into the realm of an MSL, you have to break backwards compatibility. This is tantamount to just doing #2 in the first place, and so some are cutting straight to that approach. But if we look at it in a slightly different way, an interesting thing happens:

This leads to four approaches:

The first option is seemingly untenable, but is also where I see C heading. There’s seemingly not nearly as much desire for movement in the C space as the C++ space, even though I am following what JeanHeyd Meneide is doing and appreciate it.

The second option is how I view at least one of the possible C++ successor languages, Circle. Circle is incredibly interesting and is worth its own post. But in short, it is a C++ compiler that also implements a lot of extensions, both ones that are proposals in the committee, but also ones that its author is interested in. He has been doing lifetime experiments.

The third option is where the most famous successor languages live: Carbon and cpp2. I haven’t gotten to spend a ton of time with either of these yet, but they explicitly aim to do to C++ what C++ did to C, or what TypeScript did to JavaScript: create a new language for new code, while allowing you to use the older language for older code. This allows them to break backwards compatibility more easily: new code can more easily be written under the new constraints. This gives them a larger degree of freedom to make changes, which may be necessary to move the needle significantly on the safety issue. But to my knowledge, they do not attempt to be memory safe by default. They’re conceptually similar to Zig in this way.

But what about a fourth option? What if someone did a TypeScript for C++, but one that was closer to what Rust does? You might argue that this is basically just Rust? (Interestingly, it is also sort of what Zig is with C: you can use the same compiler to compile a mixed codebase, which is close enough in my opinion.) What makes me worry about option #3 is that it doesn’t pass the seeming test that is coming: memory safe by default. I still think moving to a #3 style solution is better than staying with #1, but is that enough? I don’t know, time will tell. I wonder to what degree you can get “C++ but memory safe” without just being Rust. As we talked about earlier, most languages that are trying to improve on Rust in this space are willing to trade off some core constraints on Rust’s design to get them, but C++ and Rust share the same constraints. That said, it would take a tremendous amount of hubris to declare that Rust is the final, ultimate, best language in the “memory safe without GC” space. Rust has made a lot of mistakes too. Maybe reflecting on those will make for a good twelfth year post. Someone get started on Rust++, please!

The reason that today is my Rust-a-versary is that I usually play with a new language over Christmas break, and in 2012, that language was Rust. Maybe this Christmas, I’ll give cpp2 a try.

In the final minutes before publishing this, I also found another interesting report. This is a report to the CISA director by the Technical Advisory Council on how to engage with the memory safety question. Rust has 17 mentions. I haven’t read it yet, but I figured I’d include it here.